The Phenomenon of Computer Art and the Possibilities of a New Aesthetic
Authors: Maria Luiza Taunay & Tania Fraga
Introduction
The use of computers may enhance the creative process of the fine artist in almost unbelievable ways. It is much more than a tool: it is the most powerful instrument the artists ever had. Computers amplify the human being's thought process1 by working as an assistant-instrument that extends the cognitive knowledge related with the visual experience and by generating a different form of organizing this experience. The use of computers will also require from the artists the elaboration of new visual languages 2 that could bridge art and technology, the redefinition of their role, and the initiative to conquer new frontiers of expression.
This essay is an attempt to formulate theoretical foundations for a new aesthetic now emerging from the computerized artistic production. It is also an effort to point out the importance of providing artists and art students the proper information and the opportunity to get involved with this new artistic phenomenon.
The work of art in the visual field deals with the emotion as direct result of the sensations and perceptions, or as an indirect reflection of the world upon the mind3. During the present century the main role of the visual arts has been to disclose new ways to perceive or analyze our perceptions of the world, and to interact with the art work opening new realities to the viewer4. Through the visual experience we become aware of different ways to look at the world. The result instigates the process of creation in a feedback loop towards news experiences.
People are changing from the position of simply operators of machines to the one in which machines amplify individuals5. A new range of experiences is becoming possible. Electronic artifacts, which provide the potential for smart, convivial learning appliances, serve as "argumentators, facilitators and amplifiers"6 of human organisms7. These artifacts can be discovery-based systems with the capability of self-reconfiguration, consequently accommodating individual needs. Break through technologies such as bio-molecular computers, neural networks, artificial intelligence, robotic, genetic engineering and nanotechnology are changing the human being's perception of the world.
We consider that the process of creation of the art work should represent the process of production as a whole. That it should be representative of the society and epoch in which it is created8. One must agree that the use of computers has been changing the methods of production and the patterns of communication in our society9, therefore changing the artistic production. The process of serial reproduction is changing to a process of flexible production10. The latter is intermediated by computers orienting the human tasks or the work of the robots. The fluidity of the information through the networks spreads the ability to interchange ideas as a factor of multiplication and will change all the relations among labor, production, social organizations, educational systems, and environment among others11.
The comprehension of the artistic phenomenon as a whole12, allows the amplification of the concept of fine art, communication and expression13. Artistic possibilities are then opened to explore new realities. Technological advances provide ways to organize the world using the processes of production and the spreading of information. The new organization changes the perception's paradigms of this world and the ways that the cognitive thought is structured in our society14. The work of art when significant must be a factor of rupture responsible for emulating meanings for each epoch. These meanings will form the main body of a symbolic production characterizing an interface between humans and the world in which they live, work, and exchange experiences.
The artistic manifestations have evolved together with the history of man and mankind's technology. Meanwhile, today's scientific knowledge grows so fast and specialized, that it becomes accessible to the artists only by their own intuition. It is necessary to fortify the bridges between art and science15 in such ways that the work of art may develop approaches that could express the meanings of the sciences. Only then it will contribute to establish the expressive synthesis in the form of symbols, that will reach and touch the human being. That is the big challenge of the contemporary artist.
Muriel Cooper (Director of the Media Laboratory, MIT) wrote in the article "The new Graphic Languages" that "in each period of our history, design and communication have evolved synchronously with the technology of the time....each new medium has extended our sense of reality..."16. Desk top publishing emerged from the union of the laser writer and typography. The new software applications placed industrial production tools into the hands of fine artists, graphic artists, designers, architects and animators. A new market and imagery production were and are being generated. The new technologies are changing our symbolic representation of the world. New generations continue to expand the tools with which to engage idea, audience, and machine. The personal computers and related electronic devices have become powerful accessible new instruments with which permit us to expressively explore these new complex relationships17.
Research centers and educational institutions are trying to give a response to the information revolution. In the USA the Media Laboratory (MIT) has responded as much as the Bauhaus did for the industrial revolution. One of the most important factors that allow this response is the consideration of processes as products. Groups of artists and scientists are already working together in universities around the world.
Concerning the limitations of the software and the characteristics they impose upon the work of the artist, we would say they are not different from the limitations of other tools or materials. For example: a wheel creates shapes with surfaces of revolution, and a tensioned structure must be built in metal not in clay, or it would collapse. We think that the biggest limitation is in the education of the artists18. Computer Graphics and Animation are new sciences and the Art Schools have not yet had time to adapt their curricula, although there are some exceptions such as The New York School of Visual Arts. Without a real knowledge of the possibilities that these new sciences offer, we artists are usually limited to our old ways of creating art.
The use of a computer and the creative process of the fine artist
When we began to work with computers we faced them as a powerful tool to simulate big sculptures, art installations and as an experimental tool. In a very short period of time we discovered that they are instruments with output to different media such as video, printers and photos. Computers enabled us to create imagined "environments" that are impossible to build in the physical world, and disclosed a fabulous repertoire, until now hidden under analytic formulations19. Such an incredible repertoire is suitable to express by the artist's creations the meanings of the contemporary sciences realizing John Dewey's quotation: "Sciences states meanings. Art expresses them". This has been one of the challenges we put to ourselves. We have begun to look for 3D structures and 2D images, coherent in themselves but only possible when built with numbers in a virtual world created through computers.
There are several packages available to build these virtual worlds but none off them were developed towards the artist's goals. However, the development of packages with more versatility and with ability to interchange modeling, rendering and animation tools, will open new frontiers of expression:
- packages in which it is possible the exploration of virtual reality languages in themselves is possible;
- packages with an openness the commercial software don't have;
- packages that will allow the artist to explore repertoires using shapes, behaviors, physical laws and transformations facilitating descriptive actions upon them.
Let us imagine a type of object-oriented world-actor-scene and movement language20. A language more restricted than the verbal languages, but more descriptive than they are now, mixing graphic icons with text to make active shapes, colors, textures, coefficients, velocities, gravities and all the other variables present in graphics and animation. This language will not prevent the artists from acknowledging the meanings of the variables present in the process, but it can bridge the gap between the abstract conception and the visual result. The work of art summarized in a description of the object, the scene, the operations and the transformations applied over the different elements of this scene (camera, lights, objects) will form the frames. Will the goal pursued by the Conceptual Artists be achieved21?
Topics to Investigate
The work in universities, with the scientists who develop research in computer graphics and animation, showed us the unfathomable possibilities that this new science has opened to the field of the fine arts, among others, and showed us some very plausible possibilities.
Procedural art or proceduralism22, as this whole process is called, expands even further the experimental contributions of previous art movements. Meanwhile, it is necessary to formulate a set of general principles to orient the artists that are working in this field. These principles should be flexible because the diversity of styles is strongly desired. The self expression once considered as an evolutionary step in the process of the human conscience has been already overcame as an artistic boundary and new frontiers must be searched and explored.
To begin with, it is necessary to ask some questions and we have been formulating some of them. How do the artists deal with the huge amount of colors, shapes, operations, sounds, movements and textures in ways that will enhance the final results? How can a set of relations that creates different configurations using a repertoire be established within the art work, in order to preserve its coherence? Is coherence desirable? From the artistic point of view is the aliasing effect not a qualitative characteristic, instead of a defect? Will the recoursive and automatic repetition of procedures bring about different systems to organize visual thoughts? How do you make available the incredible visual worlds that are hidden under analytic formulations? How do you uncover such a fabulous repertoire suitable to express the meanings of the contemporary sciences? How do you work with the camera (eye position of the viewer) as an active element of the creative process, turning the camera's movement into pure expression and bringing about unrevealed perspectives? Are there shapes that can be easily executed by a robot, that are too complex to be executed in the traditional ways of serial reproduction? Will the new processes of prototyping without molding23 require profound aesthetics modifications in the products? Would the role of the fine arts be the development of visual languages applied by the correlated fields? Are the Art Schools prepared to deal with such a change?
The Outline of a New Aesthetic
We have been thinking over all the questions previously quoted during the last few years. We don't have the answers to them but we have being developing an approach to deal with them in successive steps. Therefore it is important to state that this is only a beginning.
The first step is related with our identity as fine artists: we are the ones who work with the visual experience as a phenomenon in itself. We are neither cinematographers, nor commercial artists, nor architects, nor designers, but the ones who develop visual languages and experiment with them. These same languages are applied by all the correlated fields which deal with the visual experience and are used to express meanings, to create symbols or signs, to communicate feelings, emotions or concepts. Such languages are now permeated by other fields of knowledge and a continuous feedback has been established. The result is that the limits among diversified fields are undefined, and the fine artists, in general, retreat to the domain where they can assure their own identities. It is necessary to face this new challenge without delay.
The second step is related with a historical background upon which we could establish a dialogue to go beyond the artistic experimentation that has been conquered during this century. We chose to base our work upon the Constructivism and Minimalism movements, as the approaches in the art domain that better suite the work intermediated by computers. The aesthetic of the Constructivism played important roles in the history of fine arts. It implied that the work of art should be emptied of all references to the outside world24. The main goal of the fine art was to deal with the elements that form a composition. This composition was connected with the idea of unity and several artists intended to create a grammar of harmony25. The visual values were objective, autotelic, having within themselves the purpose of their existence.
It is necessary to separate the visual and conceptual approach from the ideological ones. Aesthetic values have been mythical values based on beliefs26, but they can be a set of pre-established principles to be chosen by the artists. The constructivists, in general, believed in the power of art based on aesthetic experience, as a phenomenon that would change the world and its social organization. This belief proved itself to be a wishful thinking. Its failure carried on a big delusion the to next generation of artists. Nevertheless if the work of art cannot change the economical and social organization of the world, at least, it can change the ways we look at it and see it. That was the challenge of the minimalists27. They eliminated from their work anything and everything that did not belong exclusively to the medium. They worked with the power of abstraction from the visual point of view. In the words of Muriel Cooper "the computer is a medium different from the physical world, one that offers the power of abstraction"28. This power of abstraction can be fermented if we take in consideration the approaches quoted above, characterizing an initial foundation over which to outline some orientation principles.
We established a dialogue with the two art movements using the following basic concepts:
1. the sensibility is a kind of conceptual sensibility and the interface between emotion and thought is in the mind;
2. the notion of modularity changes to the notion of flexible modularity;
3. the meanings did not come from the outside world but from the shapes, colors and movements themselves;
4. everything that does not belong to the process should be eliminated;
5. the process of creation should represent the process of production exploring the new possibilities open by the technology that is the base of such process;
6. the work of art should disclose ways to perceive the world, opening new realities to the viewer;
7. the work of the fine artist is not literary, there is no narrative in it;
8. the main goal of the work is to deal with the elements that complement the visual composition. These elements are:
8.1. the medium which is electronic waves intermediated by circuits (hardware);
8.2. the images which are digital information expressed through analytical languages (software) using numeric matrix subjected to transformations, representing objects of the 2D, 3D, 4D, nD spaces, and the output of the images which can be presented in different ways such as video display and eletronic prints;
8.3. and the repertoire in itself;
9. and the experimentation exploring the concepts of anamorphoses29 and metamorphoses can be extended since the matrix image may be submitted to infinite transformations. The intrinsic capability of transformation is in the nature of this technology30. Its main characteristic is the ability to manipulate an infinite number of mutations.
Our premisses and goals differ from those of the constructivists and minimalists in that:
1. our work is not always emptied of all the references to the outside world but the few references, when present, are always the most improbable or unpredictable we could think of;
2. the representations are not denied. They are mainly representations of geometric shapes that can be considered as mathematical concepts expressed as 2D views of 3D, or nD shapes;
3. the creation of illusions are searched and desired, not the realistic illusion of reality as we know it, but the illusions created by the mind when confronted with some perceptual phenomena;
4. the subjectivity is strongly present. It provides the energy to face the challenge to understand deeply what computer graphics and animation are and their usefulness to the artist. The abstract thought is the base of the process of creation but the vital energy, the empathy that will be employed to create connections between conception and feeling, is the result of a subjective process that emerges by intuition31. We do not give up our subjectivity and objectivity in order to work with computers.
The third step concerns the repertoire we chose to work with. Tania Fraga chose the Torus, the Moebius strip, the Plucker conoid, the Crosscap as the basic shapes that have formed the main body of her work. The process of constructing shapes using intersections, subtractions and additions of basic primitive solids such as torus, cones, cylinders and cubes is known as constructive solid geometry (CSG). Transformations such as rotations, translations and changes in scale are applied over the set of primitives to structure the shapes. Particular procedures were elaborated and successively reelaborated. Her work gravitates around some dialectical concepts:
1. the opposition between conceptual simplicity and the visual complexity of the final results;
2. the physicality of the sculptural shape and the immateriality of its representation or simulation;
3. and the contrast between roundness and sharpness;
The 3D shapes are objects constructed and shaped as sculptures. Since we usually think of sculptures as something that occupy a material space, the computerized representation creates a paradoxical idea: immaterial sculptures. They are sculptures with a tactile and sensual appeal, asking to be touched, but they only exist in our perceptual space. They exist some place in our brain where colors and shapes are interpreted. We feel pleasure and frustration since the total satisfaction cannot be achieved in this virtual space of refuge. We can exercise our freedom only with the mind32 .
Maria Luiza Taunay developed her work with a graphic approach which originated with her artistic education as printmaker. She chose the circle and the square as the basic two dimentional shapes that compose her work. The graphic and conceptual opposition between these shapes is explored through combinations and transformations facilitated by computer graphics applications. All images were created in a two dimensional space although some represent three dimentional forms. Squares and circles blend with each other or help in composing the movement of another shape.
The fourth step is to show how we chose a set of relations to create different configurations using our repertoire. The work of Tania Fraga could be thought as a metaphor for the process of thinking. We move through the shapes, then beyond them, and perceive their deepness. We feel there is a place beyond the image which we cannot clearly see. We feel the light focused inside the image but we cannot touch it. It is like what happens in our mind when we try to hold on to a thought and it goes away. We capture a chain of thoughts in one moment, then it shifts in a different direction while we try to keep it in the same place. There is no system of reading the image that pulls the eyes of the observer in one path or another, obliging them to follow it. There is only the appeal to the eyes to go somewhere beyond the shape itself. At the same time the interior of the shape is disclosed, illuminated. Interior and exterior are no longer two separated spaces that exclude one another. They are part of the same continuum that characterizes the simulated space where multiple perspectives can be created. The meanings didn't come from the outside world but from the perceptual and conceptual state of the viewer's mind.
In Maria Luiza Taunay's work different configurations are created from the preocupation with balance, harmony and simplicity. There is the need to express a complex idea with simple forms. While composing her images she is also concerned with the quality and variety of textures being generated and taking advantage of the aliasing effect. Consequently a paralel research with various printed outputs is being developed. The repertoire is used to create images that are put out electronically, transfered to lithographic stones or plates and printed. This result may be scaned and put into the computer for further transformations. Her work is involved with the concepts of conceptual creation and material creation.
Another project we are developing together is to simulate a virtual theater. The idea of a spherical theater was previously formulated by Weininger in the Bauhaus33. He created the idea of a theater with a vertical mobile stage, to be seen from everywhere in the audience where each view becomes a set of different experiences. The space of the audience will be filled by the viewers who can chose their position around the stage. The viewers will see the simulated spectacle from a set of places on the inner surface of the virtual theater. The center of interest will be the center of the mobile vertical stage. The viewers will have the opportunity to see the spectacle in its totality as a set of 3D synthetic images in movement, using output devices such as goggles and joysticks. At the same time the stage is not a space restricted by the physical laws of the real world. It has its own behavior. Anyone that can turn on a VCR device may be part of it. This project is already beginning and it will be developed through network interchanges.
The human being has been looking at nature, rationalizing about it, and exploiting it without much consideration for the consequences of such actions. Maybe the time has arrived when we can look into our minds to uncover new possible ways to act upon our environment discover different realities. These discoveries may not come about if we are prisoners of our own culture, our own ways of thinking about the real world. It is an attempt to reiterate the human condition as conscious beings together with our living condition that permits us to exist, to interact, to create. We can act with nature, changing it, developing it, in order to preserve its peculiarities. The process of creation is presented as a homage of the creation of man and nature.
The Earth as an entity where freedom can be exercised and relationships improved has been a new threshold opened in the last few decades. Proposals of interactive events with international participation, using telecommunications networks have been the commitment of several groups of artists in order to exchange experiences. Different fields of artistic actions can be expanded using virtual reality technologies to bring an audience from anywhere around the world to a virtual simulated stage sharing and interchanging emotions and thoughts34 .
The last step is to emphasize the work of some other artists and how they addressed the problem. We think that it is time to put together some different approaches we found so we can begin to formulate broader theoretical bases. This task should to be pursued by the contemporary artist working with computers. We have synthesized the work of few artists and our list does not intend to cover the issue extensively:
1. Jose Wagner Garcia worked in the MIT using as repertoire animated 3D shapes that were the visualization of the histories of the life of bacteria that emit light. He used scientific data visualization to establish a repertoire opening a new and unexplored visual world;
2. Eduardo Kac from the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, together with the engineer Ed Bennet, are exploring the aesthetic possibilities of remote-control creation in telematic experience where the participants improvise strategies of vision in a platform of ongoing aesthetic experimentation35 ;
3. Barbara Nessin from New York explores the random access memories of the computer to create interactive small books from a database of 400 images;
4. Ken Golberg and Claudia Vera from Los Angeles questioned the sacred object named "oeuvre d'art", using a mechanical robot pre-programmed to paint images;
5. The group coordinated by Myron Krueger explored the idea of participation and interaction of different persons in the same electronic event. They use two environments - video places - intermediated by computers. Two cameras captured distinct contexts, where the actions of two performers occurred simultaneously while a third person intervene in the actions of the others;
6. Following minimalist traditions Mark Wilson creates his repertoire through algorithmic process. He values "the algorithmic procedures and numbering processes of the computer itself", creating works "with minimal interferences from the artist"36. He attempts to use directly the digital nature of the computer, making the pixels the central elements of his work. The result is a picture that can be hung on walls but it has a unique and distinctive poetic quality;
7. In Brazil, Suzete Venturelli and Bia Medeiros from the Art Institute of the University of Brasilia are using different software developed by engineers in the Computer Science Department of the same University to create ambiguous situations with their images;
8. Mario Ramiro uses telecommunication to create events. He has been exploring the conceptual idea of the process while it is happening in live television broadcasts and radio programs. His work of art is transitory but extremely alive during its short period of life and creates a rupture in the routine of the massive broadcast programming.
Conclusion
Computer graphics and animation have brought a new visual order based on the notion of simulation, to the world of the symbolic production in the field of the visual arts. They introduced the concept of digital image that is numeric in its morphological aspect. The digital image is a matrix image, it is interactive and is generated by an analytic language37. Compared to traditional art they created a completely different set of conditions and relations that can be explored in new repertoires and in innovative ways to interchange experiences through international networks38 .
New technologies generate new processes that will in their time create a new way of thinking, a new world. The research that sustain the upcoming technologies are supported by government and industry with the purpose of amplificating and dominating the process of knowledge. It is extremely important to be aware of the development of the new processes. Therefore, to fight oppression we must keep alerted to the intentions that drive such support39. The development of the human consciousness and of freedom are the goals of the Humanities and the Arts and cannot be forgotten.
The present transition between the industrial age and the information and knowledge ages is pushing the development of electronic artifacts40. Knowledge systems can be the predecessors to the enhanced learning environments. Intelligent Hypermedia Appliances, such as computer generated text, graphics and aural output that dialog with the learner are already in use. Few educators are referring again to Piaget41 for his theories on learning by playing. Piaget considered children scientists that conducted experiments, formulated theories and attempted to validate results. Alan Kay adds that "the computer is a powerful simulative tool to link the natural desire to explore with the innate ability to learn from experimentation"42. However the educational field in general has not yet absorbed this methodology.
Since the educational system is organized as a hierarchical chain, innovations did not pervade all its connecting links. The Art Schools as end points of this chain have not yet had time to revise and redirect their curricula.
During our research for information on the latest technologies and their applications on the field of the visual arts, we became aware of the immense scientific development and the infinite possibilities they are disclosing for the artistic expression. While the educational fields are striving for new methods of learning, and taking advantage of the new machines, scientists are coming up with many more improvements. We still find pre-conceived ideas in the artistic environment objecting the incorporation of the possibilities being offered.
In the Information and Knowledge age the decisive drives of success are individuality, creativity, interactivity and diversity. Such qualities, inherent in the work of a good artist, are already in practice in artistic educational environment, but the Art Schools must revise and redirect their curricula towards new visual organizations building new aesthetics to be applied in future symbolic productions.
We believe that the use of this dialog as a means of understanding the process of creation using computers, may help other artists and may bring about visual possibilities never before conceived. It is not a repetition of what has been already achieved during other moments of our artistic evolution. It means to take advantage of what has already been stated and, by incorporating new technologies, become able to move a step ahead towards the disclosure of new aesthetics.
The opening of this threshold could be an attempt to reiterate the human condition as conscious beings, permiting us to exist, to interact, to create. Whether you look at it as an environmental issue or as a powerful way to acquire and exchange knowledge, the computer and related instruments, representative of our technological development, will change and are changing our perception of the world, our paradigms. The artists, as in other moments of our history, are the ones that expresses these changes generating new symbols, new paradigms and new forms of relations between human beings and the world we live in.
We believe that we desperatly need to improve these relations.
REFERENCES:
1 See The Electronically Enhanced Learner in The Knowledge Age Environment in (KUBI91).
2 The expression "visual language" is used here as metaphor of the verbal languages. Susan Langer considered that this metaphor is not appropriated, concerning the huge differences among the verbal and the visual fields. The expression has been traditionally used to synthesize the process of organization and composition of the work of art (LANG53), (LANG72). Therefore it is important to highlight some of these differences: we will always use "repertoire" instead of "vocabulary" since it is more extensive; the analogy of the grammar concerns the laws of visual perception to which we are subjected; the syntax is considered a set of relations established among different configurations. It is created by each artist when he or she defines his or her approach to the work as a whole.
3 Examples of works such as Susan Langer's, Bela Julesz's, and Frank Popper's make evident the search for new ways of perception. See (LANG53) op cit., (LANG72) op cit., (JULE71) and (POPP68).
4 See (POPP68) op cit., (BLOO76), (ARGA66), (ARGA87), (MERL71) and (MULV69).
5 See Creating the 21st Century Individual Responsibility in () and (NOBB90).
6 See (KUBI91) op cit.
7 See (MACH92) and (LEDE91).
8 Kandinsky said: "Every artist, as the child of his time, is impelled to express the spirit of his age" (RICK67), page 22.
9 See (SEIT89) and (COOP89).
10 See (SEIT89) op cit. and (FORT91).
11 See (MAYU91), (LEON91) and (BERR92).
12 See (BOUR87) and (BOUR89).
13 See (ARGA87) op cit., (ARNH68), (ARNH89), (STAN91), (READ55), (READ60).
14 See (BACH68) and (WHIT88).
15 See (PRIG82), (BARR80), (GLEI89) and (PEIT86).
16 See Design and The Computer in (SEIT89), page 148.
17 See (SEIT89) op cit., (FORT91) op cit. and (BINK90).
18 See (KUBI91) op cit., (BROW92) and (MAYU91) op cit.
19 The well known mathematician Thomas Banchoff from The Brown University works with the visualization of the until now inaccessible spaces of higher dimension. Using computer graphics he makes available an unthinkable set of objects that could be explored by artists, creating worlds of shapes in movement without any similarities to the ones we have known until now. It is the start of an adventure. An adventure of the mind and the reason disclosing new possibilities. See (BANC90).
20 See (THAL90) and (THAL91).
21 Berton says that the digital medium liberates artists from the work required by image making "allowing them to focus on concept, content and creative uses of the medium". See (BERT90) pg. 10.
22 See (ROSE89).
23 See (KOBE90), (LAMP91), (CARE91), (SAWY91) and (STIX92).
24 See (POPP68) op cit., (RICK67), (MORG91), (OLIV87), (RESTWD), (SUBI87), (GULL85) and (LIMP81).
25 See (WEST91), (PEDR82), (CARR91) and (LAZZ72).
26 See (FORT91) op cit.
27 See (MCEV92), (MARS89), (LUCI85) and (DABR85).
28 See (COOP89) op cit.
29 See (HABAWD).
30 See (COUC88), (MACH88), (MACH92) op cit.
31Herbert Read and Worringer, in the beginning of the century, characterized two basic psychological processes that oriented the relationship between human beings and the world. The empathy or vitalism as a direct function of the sentiment and the abstract capability to organize the thought using geometry, establish categories and relations, to improve the knowledge of the world. During the human evolution the degree of differentiation between these two processes were intermediated by the cultural paradigms of each epoch. The artistic field was understood as the locus where emotions took shape, were manipulated and perpetuated, either as an act of pure vitality , as a cognitive act of mental activity, or both. Their approach may be considered a suitable beginning to artists who use computers as assistant-instruments. See (READ55) op cit., (READ68) op cit. and (WORRWD).
32 The work has been created in stereo pairs that can be viewed as a full 3D shape using stereoscope or polarizing filters. Some of the shapes were created as anaglyfic images that can be visualized as black and white 3D shapes using red and blue glasses. See (GIBS56), (JULE71) op cit., (LEIB90), (LIPT82) and (WALK86).
33 See (ATHA86), (BURR64), and (WEST91) op cit.
34 See (DRUC91), (DRUC92) and (POLI92).
35 See (KAC92).
36 See ( BOUD92).
37 See (COUC88) op cit., (FOLE90), (MALI90)and (BINK89).
40 See (KUBI91) op cit. and (LOND92).
41 See (KUBI91) op cit.
42 Ibid..
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